Chemical Overuse

Here is a discussion post that I created for my biology class.

Chemicals can be useful in that they can eradicate disease carrying and crop destroying pests. But there may be ways to do this that do not involve chemicals. In terms of crops, natural predators can be introduced to eat the pests, as long as these predators are native to the areas they are being introduced to and won't disrupt the ecosystem. Praying mantises have long been favored for eating pests such as potato bugs. Ladybugs eat aphids. And dragonflies consume mosquito larvae.
Another problem with chemicals is the fact that they don't discriminate between which bugs are helpful and which are pests. They kill everything. Populations of natural predator insects have been badly damaged by the widespread use of chemicals to control garden pests and weeds. The time may be right to start re-introducing these natural predators and to cut back on the use of chemicals to control pests.
The chemicals used are not healthy for animals either, and this includes humans. If enough of them are introduced into the system of a larger animal such as a human, over time they will begin mutating cells into cancer cells. The lymph system will be overwhelmed, unable to trap and destroy all of these cancer cells, and the affected organism will develop cancer. And, as in the case of DDT, the shells of birds in areas exposed to the pesticide over a long period of time became thin and fragile due to mutations.
According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
"Exposure to DDT, DDE, and DDD occurs mostly from eating foods containing small amounts of these compounds, particularly meat, fish and poultry. High levels of DDT can affect the nervous system causing excitability, tremors and seizures. In women, DDE can cause a reduction in the duration of lactation and an increased chance of having a premature baby. DDT, DDE, and DDD have been found in at least 441 of the 1,613 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)."
Cutting back on the use of toxic substances in agriculture will reduce contamination of ground water and may in the long run reduce the incidence of cancer.

Bedbugs

I was reading where the incidence of bedbug infestation has been on the rise in the United States and it crosses class barriers. It seems to be due to increased international travel and decreased use of certain pesticides. On the upside, these pesticides are carcinogenic, so less is better. Also, bedbugs, though vile, are generally not vectors for disease the way fleas, ticks and mosquitoes are.

I work in an upscale retirement community and we do have folks here who still travel frequently. We have had a few instances of bedbugs. The interesting thing about bedbugs is that they do not hide in mattresses the way many people think. They hide in the cracks of the bed, or in surrounding furniture. There are nontoxic powders containing diatoms that can be sprinkled in the cracks of furniture.

My ex husband rides the bus that comes from the airport when he comes to visit our son on the weekends. A couple of times bedbugs have hitched a ride on his backpack. I've eradicated them using this type of powder a couple of times. But it's kind of like a Stephen King story. They come back. I'll know they're back when I find itchy bites on my arms. Bastards!

For all their persistence, bedbugs are not high on the intelligence scale. At work last night I was doing something on the computer. I turned around to look at my lab book and there, bold as brass, sat a bedbug. Right in the middle of the lab book. Big sucker it was too. (For a bedbug, big is about the size of a pin head.) Had gotten fat and happy feasting off the blood of the elderly and was now coming to see me. I grabbed a Kleenex, plucked it off my book, and squashed it. That will teach it to be cocky!

It's nice to know that there are non-poisonous methods of dealing with these miniature vampires. Perhaps my next book should be titled Night of the Bedbug. Now that's a real vampire, and a real nightmare!

Thumb Dominance Experiment

DOMINANT THUMB EXPERIMENT

ABSTRACT
The hypothesis of the experiment states that when people clasp their hands, the thumb of the dominant hand may overlap the thumb of the non-dominant hand. The experiment is conducted to determine whether there is a correlation between which thumb is on top when the hands are clasped and hand dominance.

HYPOTHESIS
In theory, the thumb of the dominant hand should be on top when the hands are clasped.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND TESTING
Fifty volunteers were located to participate in the study.

PROCEDURES
The subjects were asked to state which was their dominant hand, then to clasp their hands together and see which thumb ended up on top.

SUMMARY OF DATA
SUBJECTS NUMBER % OF TOTAL SUBJECTS
Right handed with right thumb dominant (7) 14%
Right handed with left thumb dominant (34) 68%
Left handed with right thumb dominant (4) 8%
Left handed with left thumb dominant (5) 10%
Total number of experimental subjects (50) 100
Number of subjects per category divided by total subjects 100

RESULTS
As is shown in the table, 68% of subjects were right hand dominant with left thumb dominant. 14% were right handed with right thumb dominant. 10% were left handed with left thumb dominant and 8% were left handed with right thumb dominant. The majority of people in the world are right handed and that was reflected in this experiment. It is interesting to note that overall, thumb dominance is seen to be the opposite of hand dominance. This is overwhelmingly true with the right handed subjects. However, in the left handed subjects, a small majority had left thumb dominance. It is uncertain why this would be the case.
Overall, the hypothesis that thumb dominance should match hand dominance was disproven. However, the question remains as to why it appears that in left handed persons, thumb dominance generally matches hand dominance.

Alcohol and other teratogens in pregnancy: my experience

Alcohol is the most common teratogen in developed nation. Children with fetal alcohol syndrome tend to have specific facial deformities including widely spaced eyes and an abnormally thin upper lip. They often have developmental delays, both physically and mentally. They tend to have learning disabilities.
The amount of alcohol consumed in pregnancy has an effect on how badly affected the child will be.
When I became pregnant I had been told that I could not get pregnant. I was drinking fairly heavily at the time. Once I discovered I was pregnant I quit drinking and smoking. However, I was also taking synthyroid and Inderal, which I continued to take throughout the pregnancy. I was somewhat angry when I later discovered that the Inderal was probably unnecessary. It had not been prescribed for high blood pressure but for a mild tremor in my hands, which in monitoring myself I discovered only happens during my period.
My son wasn't technically low birth weight. He was born two weeks early by induced labor and, as it turned out, cesarean section, because I had toxemia. This is fortunate because I had also contracted campylobacter from chicken I had eaten at a restaurant and while a healthy adult can recover from this, it can kill a fetus. It was lucky that he was delivered by c-section because he could have contracted it if he had been delivered normally and could have died from the resulting infection. As it was I became very dehydrated due to the horrific diarrhea caused by this vile microbe, and I am not a small person. For a tiny infant, the loss of fluid and electrolyte imbalance would likely have been deadly.
I am not sure how much effect my drinking and smoking before realizing I was pregnant had on my son's birth weight. He was 5 pounds 12 ounces and there didn't seem to be any fat on his body. I ate well enough but wasn't particularly good about taking my calcium supplements and I think he must have been leeching calcium from my bones because I constantly craved dairy products, particularly chocolate milk and chocolate pudding.
I do know that Inderal can cause low birth weight, which is why I'm angry that the doctors thought I should continue taking it. I haven't read of any detrimental affects from taking synthyroid during pregnancy.

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999 Eyes Sideshow

There are those that will disagree with me, but after hearing the freaks speak out on the Discovery health channel show, I say that they have every right to earn THEIR OWN LIVING showcasing their different physiotypes. I do not use the term "freak" disparagingly. This is what they call themselves, and this term describes anyone who doesn't fit the "norm." Although I look "normal" on the outside, I too am a freak. More on this in a moment.

999 Eyes is a sideshow in the old style tradition. But let me borrow this paragraph from the home page because it says it better than I can.

The 999 EYES Authentic Freakshow explicitly celebrates real genetic diversity by showcasing amazing feats performed by LIVING HUMAN ODDITIES! The freaks share real stories of what it is like to be born truly different from the average 10 fingered and 10 toed genetic blueprint for humanity – giving folks from all corners a chance to realize that what is different in beautiful. We present as guests Human Marvels and Sideshow artists, such as the Leopard Man and the Human Blockhead for their fantastically adorned bodies and wondrous sideshow skills. In this show, one must be born physically and obviously different from the vast majority of humanity to be considered a true freak. The 999 EYES freaks are performers who choose by their own free will to celebrate their medical anomaly on stage. The 999 EYES supports rights for differently-abled people, and we play only in wheelchair accessible venues.

Thank you for doing it! It isn't only the so called "beautiful" people who should be able to excel in this world. Why not the truly different? Why not the "handicapped?" I usually hate P.C. terms, but these people are true illustrations of what it means to be "differently abled." I hate the idea that the world has to be a place enslaved by a very constrained definition of beautiful and those who do not fit this definition should do a favor to those whose eyes and delicate sensibilities would be offended and hide away.

My handicap is not obvious from the outside. I have a mental handicap and I do have a physical handicap which isn't obvious. I have bipolar disorder. Often I can function "normally," whatever that may be. But at other times I wrestle with a mind that seems hell bent on killing me and although I take Lithium to control my mood swings, nothing is perfect and, in the same way that a diabetic's medications sometimes fail them, Lithium sometimes fails to do the job for me. Before diagnosis I was at the mercy of my mood swings. I know that I'm different from other people and there are those who want a "perfect" world who would say that a person like me should keep away from "normal" people. But I have the right to make a living and maybe even make an impact.

I also deal with fibromyalgia, which while it does not in any way distort the limbs can occasionally be, if not crippling, physically compromising. I have a relatively mild case, but sometimes it makes me very tired and I have difficulty concentrating. The muscle soreness is of the low grade variety, but it is from head to toe. It was worse when I was working a job that was very physically demanding. I would be sore and tired for days and missed a lot of work. I was ashamed of how "lazy" I appeared to be.

I am not ashamed of my handicaps but most of my co workers still do not know that I am bipolar. They know about the fibromyalgia and the hypothyroidism. These are "acceptable" diagnoses. Mental illness is still shrouded in shame. Which is why the world needs a freak like me to tell it like it is.

So, far from saying "those poor people" regarding the side show performers, I say "let them speak out! Let them tell it like it is! Let them show off their unique body types, their unique abilities. Right on, Freaks!"

Besides, for fuck's sake, they're a hell of a lot more interesting than Paris Hilton or Lindsay Lohan on their worst day!

This freak is trying to make an extra buck or two with some affiliate marketing. I find programs I think that people really might be interested in and insert them at the bottom of my posts. No, I won't come to your house in the middle of the night with a gun and make you order anything. But I might send Axe Man to your house naked. So...the choice is yours!

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KCKmedical.com is America's leading online medical retailer. We deliver non-prescription medications and health related products at substantial savings direct to the consumer. We service thousands of customers nationwide from one location.

Phreequeshow

I am currently taking Human Growth and Development and we are studying genetics and congenital abnormalities. Phreequeshow is a site which educates about various genetic abnormalities in a way that is at once entertaining, educational and respectful.
I once watched a program about "Freaks" and was struck by the fact that many of the sideshow performers were upset about the people who were trying to protect them from exploitation. As one man said, "these people are trying to take away my means of making a living!"
Many "freaks" stated that they were well treated and respected as performers and that in many ways they called the shots. They were not "owned" by the carnival management, they were contract performers.
As long as we are respectful of others, why not allow them to make their living by capitalizing on their differences? Then instead of a handicap, it can be an asset. They can educate others that one doesn't need to be perfect or even "normal" to be a valid and valuable member of society even as they entertain and amaze. I am often inspired when I see a person with what might seem monumental handicaps triumph. In this world we have to use the abilities that we've been given, and sometimes those abilities are disguised as disabilities.
Besides, I think that Aloa the Alligator Boy would be a far more interesting person than Paris the Attention Whore.
From what I've found, I say let the "Freaks" have their show. They deserve to be in show business as much as the so-called "Beautiful" people!

This post about Interesting People aka Freaks is brought to you by:

Healthcare mediation. When medical bills are overwhelming, let the Healthcare Mediation Service work for you. Click Here To get started.

Hypochondriac

You Are 43% Hypochondriac

You can deal well with being sick - even if your symptoms are a little scary.
You're occasionally prone to worry about your health, but only when you have pretty strange symptoms.

Are You a Hypochondriac?
Make a Quiz

Ear Wax

Who would have thought a little ear wax could cause so many problems?

At the end of December, I ended up in the emergency room. I felt dizzy and was walking like I was drunk. My blood pressure was 180/100. I was nauseated. I thought that I was having a neurological problem.

I had hardened wax jammed against the ear drum.

When the wax was removed with a jet of water (a very uncomfortable sensation!) by the ER nurse, my blood pressure came back down to an acceptable 140/80.

Some people produce more ear wax than others. If ear wax were a commodity, I'd be in high demand!

Sometimes people think they're losing their hearing, but their ears just have too much wax. When the wax is removed, they can hear just fine.

Here is a page all about ear wax.

And now you know more than you ever wanted to?

Glucophage and PCOS

I have just started taking glucophage, not for diabetes but to combat the symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome. It is a last-ditch effort to try and help me lose weight. I have cut back on chowing down, doing things that most people would have responded to such as no longer snacking on candy from the vending machine at night and watching how many calories I consume at meals. I do exercise, not anything over the top but yoga three times a week, walking at least an hour a day plus extra walking on the treadmill twice a week. I wouldn't expect to be skinny because I do like to eat and sometimes I don't eat as well as I should, but I also wouldn't expect to weigh 240 pounds.

Stubborn weight gain is but one of the joys of PCOS. Many women who suffer from this condition have irregular periods. I have regular periods but they are extremely heavy. I have very thick hair on my head, which I'm glad of because some women who suffer from PCOS start losing their hair due to elevated androgen levels. However, I also have extremely thick hair on my arms and legs. I have to shave my arms as well as my legs and the hair is so thick that I go through a razor every time I shave, if I let the hair grow at all. The hair is extremely dark. Not very becoming, to say the least. I also have some trouble with facial hair growth but fortunately it is easily controlled with one of those small ladies' razors (Finishing Touch) and doesn't grow back as quickly as a man's beard would. My mother told me about one of my great aunts who had to shave daily or she would grow a beard like a man. I'm sure this poor woman must have had PCOS. My great grandmother was five feet tall and weighed 300 pounds. I'm 5'5" tall and currently weigh 240. I don't want to follow in her footsteps.

My mother has PCOS, as does my aunt. It does run in families.

I did have trouble with infertility and for all I know I still might if I tried to conceive a child again. My (now ex) husband and I were together for six years and never used any kind of birth control before my son was conceived. Interestingly enough, we had been planning to try adopting. My son was a surprise for us.

Ladies, if you are trying to conceive a child and having trouble, and if you are also experiencing any of the above symptoms, have your doctor check you out for PCOS.

Read this informative Article from IVF.com

I hope that the glucophage therapy works for me. So far the only side effects I've experienced were a very mild headache within ten minutes of taking it that went away on its own, and mild dry mouth. I would be thrilled if my weight loss efforts finally started working. I have been frustrated by a weight gain of 5-10 pounds every year and as I currently need to lose 90 pounds to get to a weight I find acceptable, I certainly don't need to gain more!

Keeping my fingers crossed...

What happens to a baby at birth

Before birth, oxygenated blood from the placenta flows into the child’s inferior vena cava and mixes with blood returning from the lower part of the body. The atria are, in effect, one chamber due to the open foramen ovale; however, laminar blood flow tends to supply the left atrium and ventricle (and hence the upper body) with more placental (oxygenated) blood than the right atrium receives. The ventricles also act as one and pump blood around the body. Blood from the right ventricle bypasses the lungs, flowing through the ductus arteriosus and joining blood from the left ventricle in the descending aorta. A large portion of this blood flow goes to the placenta through the umbilical arteries.

Although the pulmonary vessels are fully developed in the fetus, only a tiny amount of blood (about 5% of cardiac output) flows through them due to intense vasoconstriction of the pulmonary arterioles. The nutritive blood supply to the lungs is from the bronchial arteries that arise from the aorta. The collapsed alveoli (air sacs) are filled with amniotic fluid.

Oxygenated blood is red, de-oxygenated blood is blue, and at the moment of birth, a normal newborn is circulating a mixture of blue and red blood. The color (lips and tongue) of a healthy newborn at birth is a pinkish purple; the child has been this color for nine months and normal placental function (cord pulsating) will maintain this color until the lungs function.

When the lungs are functioning, the umbilical vessels close, the ductus venosis closes, the hepatic portal vein is open, the foramen ovale closes, the heart is two sided, the cardiac output from the right ventricle (blue blood) goes through the lungs and is oxygenated, the left ventricular output (red blood) goes through the body, the ductus arteriosus closes, the pulmonary arterioles are open, the alveoli are full of air and the child turns from purple to pink. All of this complicated process is coordinated and controlled by the child’s reflexes; it usually happens within three or four minutes of birth. What makes it happen?

All babies are born soaking wet, and on meeting the atmosphere, the skin cools; this triggers two reflexes:

The cold crying reflex - cold, wet diapers produce the same result, crying.
The cold pressor reflex - cold skin raises blood pressure.
In order to cry, the child must first take a deep breath, and an inspiratory "gasp" is often the first sign, triggered by cold, that a child is going to cry or breathe. Contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles increase thoracic volume and create negative intra-thoracic pressure. Once air is in the lungs, another reflex is triggered that relaxes the pulmonary arterioles; this causes an enormous increase in pulmonary blood flow.

The cold pressor reflex increases the blood pressure in the aorta, and this may be sufficient to reverse blood flow through the ductus arteriosus causing more blood to flow through the lungs.

The cord is also cooling, and the cord is a well-designed self-refrigerator. It has no skin and blubber to keep it warm like the child. It contains only the cord vessels surrounded by a watery gel, Wharton’s jelly, covered by a single layer of cells, the amnion. Water evaporation cools it rapidly, causing the vessels, especially the muscular arteries, to constrict; this further helps to raise systemic blood pressure and to reverse ductus arteriosus flow.

At the same time, a large transfusion of placental blood is being forced into the child by gravity and/or by uterine contraction, greatly increasing cardiac output and pulmonary blood flow. The net result of these changes is a large amount of blood flowing into the left atrium from the lungs, which raises left atrial pressure and closes the foramen ovale - the heart changes from one-sided to two-sided. The lungs are now oxygenating blood that is pumped round the body by the left ventricle - the child turns pink.

If the child has not taken the first breath, or is depressed and cannot breathe, the massive increase in pulmonary blood flow generated by the placental transfusion may, of itself, initiate ventilation. Jaykka [1,2] showed that the fetal lungs are erectile tissues; by injecting serum through the pulmonary artery of excised animal fetal lungs, the engorged capillaries around the alveoli erected them and caused air to enter through the trachea. With establishment of pulmonary blood flow, the high colloid osmotic pressure of blood causes absorption of amniotic fluid from the alveoli and "dries out" the lungs, filling the "erected" alveoli with air.

Cold will eventually cause the cord vessels to close; however, a high arterial blood oxygen concentration is probably a key factor in umbilical artery closure - they close before the umbilical vein closes; it may also cause ductus arteriosus closure. After umbilical artery closure, the placental transfusion may continue through the cord vein in a very measured and controlled manner.

Information found at: http://whale.to/a/morley4.html

Powerful Picture

Click the title link to view the photo in a larger scale at its original location. This is a five-week-old embryo found in the case of an ectopic pregnancy. Ectopic pregnancies cannot survive and present great danger to the mother's health. The embryo was removed shortly after the photo was taken. The details in the photograph are amazing. At this stage it is difficult to distinguish a human fetus from the fetuses of other animals. Apologies as I reveal the horror movie lover in me, but we do look a bit like alien chestbursters during our earliest stages of development.

Ovarian Follicles

An ovarian follicle consists of a developing oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of cells called follicular cells. At the same time that the oocyte is progressing through meiosis, corresponding changes are taking place in the follicular cells. Primordial follicles, which consist of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells, develop in the fetus and are the stage that is present in the ovaries at birth and throughout childhood.
Beginning at puberty follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates changes in the primordial follicles. The follicular cells become cuboidal, the primary oocyte enlarges, and it is now a primary follicle. The follicles continue to grow under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone, and the follicular cells proliferate to form several layers of granulose cells around the primary oocyte. Most of these primary follicles degenerate along with the primary oocytes within them, but usually one continues to develop each month. The granulosa cells start secreting estrogen and a cavity, or antrum, forms within the follicle. When the antrum starts to develop, the follicle becomes a secondary follicle. The granulose cells also secrete a glycoprotein substance that forms a clear membrane, the zona pellucida, around the oocyte. After about 10 days of growth the follicle is a mature vesicular (graafian) follicle, which forms a "blister" on the surface of the ovary and contains a secondary oocyte ready for ovulation.

Ovulation
Ovulation, prompted by luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, occurs when the mature follicle at the surface of the ovary ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into the peritoneal cavity. The ovulated secondary oocyte, ready for fertilization is still surrounded by the zona pellucida and a few layers of cells called the corona radiata. If it is not fertilized, the secondary oocyte degenerates in a couple of days. If a sperm passes through the corona radiata and zona pellucida and enters the cytoplasm of the secondary oocyte, the second meiotic division resumes to form a polar body and a mature ovum

After ovulation and in response to luteinizing hormone, the portion of the follicle that remains in the ovary enlarges and is transformed into a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is a glandular structure that secretes progesterone and some estrogens. Its fate depends on whether fertilization occurs. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum remains functional for about 10 days then it begins to degenerate into a corpus albicans, which is primarily scar tissue, and its hormone output ceases. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists and continues its hormone functions until the placenta develops sufficiently to secrete the necessary hormones. Again, the corpus luteum ultimately degenerates into corpus albicans, but it remains functional for a longer period of time.

http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit12_3_repdt_female1_ovaries.html

Meiosis

Normally, meiosis causes a halving of chromosome material, so that each parent gives 23 chromosomes to a pregnancy

A cool site about meiosis for you to enjoy:
http://www.sciencecases.org/mitosis_meiosis/mitosis_meiosis2.asp

Testes! One, two...three???

We are currently studying the reproductive system in class. Here is some fun trivia about the testes. The information was gathered from Wikipedia.

In land mammals, with the exception of the elephant the testes are located outside of the body, as they are suspended by the spermatic cord and within the scrotum. This is due to the fact that The cremasteric muscle is part of the spermatic cord. When this muscle contracts, the cord is shortened and the testicle is moved closer up toward the body, which provides slightly more warmth to maintain optimal testicular temperature. When cooling is required, the cremasteric muscle relaxes and the testicle is lowered away from the warm body and are able to cool. This phenomenon is known as the cremasteric reflex. It also occurs in response to stress (the testicles rise up toward the body in an effort to protect them in a fight), and there are persistent reports that relaxation indicates approach of orgasm. There is a noticeable tendency to also retract during orgasm.

The testicles can also be lifted voluntarily using the pubococcygeus muscle, which partially activates related muscles. This can sometimes be triggered by tightening or sucking in the stomach or abdomen.

Animals other than mammals do not have externalized testicles. Birds, despite having very high core body temperatures have internal testes: it was once theorized that birds used their air sacs to cool the testes internally, but later studies revealed that birds' testes function at core body temperature.[1] Marine mammals also have internal testes, but it has recently been shown (eg, for dolphins) that they use elaborate vascular networks to provide the necessary temperature lowering for proper operation.

The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the starting point for the process of spermatogenesis, where stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction - beginning at the walls and proceeding into the lumen to produce immature sperm.

What is meant by "my food went down the wrong tube"?

When food is swallowed, it travels down the throat, which is the common conduit for food, drink and air. Midway down the neck, the throat branches. The front branch, the trachea, channels air towards the lungs. At the top of this branch is the larynx. Just behind the larynx is esophagus, which is the tube that directs food to the stomach. As a person swallows, the soft palate closes off the nasal passages so that food doesn't get pushed up into the nose. As the throat squeezes food towards the esophagus, the larynx tips forward to allow the food to pass through, and the epiglottis seals off the airway to prevent food from going down into the trachea. Eating while talking or laughing can sometimes cause the larynx to be slow in sealing off the trachea, allowing a bit of food or drink to head towards the lungs. This triggers a strong coughing reflex to prevent aspiration.

Way Crappy!

For those of you who have never been exposed to the glory of The Poop Report, click the title link to read one of the top funniest stories ever to appear there. They're all funny, but this one's a classic!

A Refreshing Glass...Of Whiz???

There's nothing like being able to take a proper piss. If you can't, your life is made far more difficult. This simple function brings relief several times a day, although as we get older it can be a nuisance at times because it becomes harder to hold your water. For my own part, I'd rather resign myself to wearing Depends than to not be able to go and having to rely on dialysis, which is a wearying and time-consuming procedure.

Much though I enjoy the relief provided by a good leak, I feel no desire to re-consume my pee once it leaves my body. I might do it to save my own life in a situation such as being lost in the desert. However, some folks drink a hearty glass of nature's own "lemonade" by choice. Read all about it here. And fellows, I know this will break your hearts, but you need to know this. Lips that touch piss will never touch mine!

Kidney Anatomy and Physiology

My complete 26-page kidney anatomy and physiology report is available for the asking. It is a good study aid for basic anatomy and physiology from junior high level on up. Just post your request in the comments section along with your email and I will gladly send it to you. I will also be posting it a piece at a time on this site as I get around to it.

And now the irritating disclaimer.

This is intended as a resource for your own studies, not as a tool for plagarism. I enjoy sharing the knowledge I've learned through my studies and if it can make another person's learning process less frustrating, that pleases me. It's ok to take a shortcut to knowledge, but cheating only screws up your karma. Thanks!

Kidney Komponents

More information about kidneys than you ever wanted to know!
Or if you did want to know it, here it is. This is copied from my lab report on the renal system. Click the title link to see some excellent slides of various parts of the kidney along with an in-depth tutorial from the University of Texas cellular biology graduate student program.

Renal Cortex
The renal cortex is the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. The renal cortex forms a shell around the medulla. Its tissues dip into the medulla between adjacent renal pyramids to form renal columns. It contains renal corpuscles and renal tubules, except for those portions of the loop of Henle which descend into the renal medulla. It also contains blood vessels and cortical collecting ducts. The granular appearance of the cortex is due to the random arrangement of tiny tubules associated with nephrons. The renal cortex is the part of the kidney where ultrafiltration occurs.

Renal Medulla
The renal medulla is the innermost part of the kidney. It is split up into cone-shaped masses of tissue called renal pyramids, whose bases are directed toward the convex surface of the kidney, and the apices of which form the renal papillae. Each pyramid together with the associated overlying cortex forms a renal lobe. The tip of each pyramid, called a papilla, empties into a calyx, and the calices empty into the renal pelvis.
The renal medulla also contains blood vessels. Blood enters into the kidney via the renal artery, which then splits to form the arcuate arterioles. The arcuate arterioles in turn branch into interlobar arterioles, which finally reach the glomeruli.

Renal Pyramids
Renal pyramids, also known as malpighian pyramids, are the cone-shaped masses contained in the renal medulla. The renal medulla is made up of 8 to 18 renal pyramids. The broad base of each pyramid faces the renal cortex. Its apex, or papilla, points internally. The pyramids appear striped because they are formed by straight parallel segments of nephrons.

Bases of Pyramids
The broad outer portion of a renal pyramid that lies next to the cortex. Also known as basis pyramidis renis.

Renal Papilla
The papillae are small conical projections along the wall of the renal sinus. They have openings through which urine passes into the calyces.

Renal Columns
Tissue between the renal pyramids that allows for support of the renal cortex. The columns consist of blood vessels, urinary tubes, and fibrous material.

Renal pelvis
The renal pelvis is the funnel-shaped proximal part of the ureter, located approximately in the center of the kidney. It is the point of convergence of two or three major calyces. Each renal papilla is surrounded by a branch of the renal pelvis called a calyx. The major function of the renal pelvis is to act as a funnel for urine flowing to the ureter.

Calyces
The calyces surround the apex of the renal pyramids. There are minor and major calyces. Urine passes through a papilla at the apex into a minor calyx, then travels into a major calyx before passing through the renal pelvis into the ureter. Peristalsis of the smooth muscle of pace-maker cells in the walls of the calyces propels urine through the renal pelvis.

Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule
The glomerulus is the main filter of the nephron. It is a semipermeable, twisted mass of tiny tubes through which blood passes, allowing water and soluble wastes to pass through and be excreted out of the Bowman's capsule as urine. The filtered blood passes out of the glomerulus into the efferent arteriole to be returned through the medullary plexus to the intralobular vein.
The Bowman's capsule contains the primary glomerulus. Blood is transported into the Bowman's capsule from the afferent arteriole, which branches off of the interlobular artery. Within the capsule, the blood is filtered through the glomerulus and exits via the efferent arteriole. Meanwhile, the filtered water and aqueous wastes are passed from the Bowman's capsule into the proximal convoluted tubule.
Here is the best drawing I've seen of the inside of a glomerulus.

Filtration membrane
The filtration membrane is formed from the endothelial cells of the capillaries, basement membrane, and visceral epithelium of the Bowman’s capsule. It is composed of three layers:
Fenestrated endothelium of the glomerular capillaries
Visceral membrane of the glomerular capsule (podocytes)
Basement membrane composed of fused basal laminae of the other layers

Podocytes
Podocytes are cells of the visceral epithelium in the kidneys. They form a crucial component of the glomerular filtration barrier. Structural features of podocytes indicate a high rate of vesicular traffic. Many coated vesicles and pits can be seen along the basolateral domain of podocytes. Within their cell bodies, podocytes have a well-developed endoplasmic reticulum and a large Golgi apparatus, indicative of a high capacity for protein synthesis and post-translational modifications. There are also a large number of multivesicular bodies and other lysosomal components within the podocytes, indicating high endocytic activity.
Adjacent podocytes interlock to cover the basal lamina of the glomerular capillaries. There are thin filtration slits left between the podocytes. The slits are covered by diaphragms, which are composed of numerous cell-surface proteins, including nephrin, podocalyxin, and P-cadherin. These proteins ensure that large macromolecules such as serum albumin and gamma globulin remain in the bloodstream. Small molecules such as water, glucose, and ionic salts pass through the slit diaphragms and form an ultrafiltrate, which is further processed by the nephron to produce urine.
Disruption of the slit diaphragms or destruction of the podocytes can lead to massive proteinuria, whereby large amounts of protein are lost from the blood. An example of this occurs in Finnish-type Nephrosis, a congenital disorder caused by a mutation in the nephrin gene. This defect causes neonatal proteinuria leading to end-stage renal failure.
Information gathered primarily from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podocyte

Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a structure consisting of the macula densa, mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. Juxtaglomerular cells, also known as JG cells, or granular cells, are the site of renin secretion.
JG cells are found in the afferent arterioles of the glomerulus and act as an intra-renal pressure sensor. Lowered pressure leads to secretion of rennin, which increases systemic blood pressure via the renin-angiotensin system.
The macula densa senses fluid flow rate and sodium chloride concentration in the distal tubule of the kidney and secretes paracrine vasopressor, which acts on the adjacent afferent arteriole to decrease glomerular filtration rate.
Mesangial cells regulate blood flow in the glomerulus and monitor sodium and chloride levels in the distal convoluted tubules. These cells communicate with the afferent arteriole and can cause vasoconstriction, decreasing the blood flow and GFR if necessary.

Peritubular Capillaries
Peritubular capillaries are the tiny blood vessels beside the nephrons, allowing reabsorption and secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the nephron. Ions and minerals to remain in the body are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries through active transport, secondary active transport, or transcytosis. Ions to be excreted as waste are secreted from the capillaries into the nephron and sent to the bladder. The majority of exchange through the peritublar capillaries occurs because of chemical gradients, osmosis, and Na+ pumps.

Distal Convoluted Tubule
The distal convoluted tubule is the portion of a nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system. It is partly responsible for the regulation of potassium, sodium, calcium, and pH.
The DCT regulates pH by absorbing bicarbonate and secreting H+ protons into the filtrate. Sodium and potassium levels are controlled by secreting K+ and absorbing Na+.
Sodium absorption by the distal tubule is mediated by the hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption. Sodium and chlorine reabsorption are also mediated by a group of four kinases called WNK kinases.
The distal convoluted tubule also participates in calcium regulation by absorbing Ca2+ in response to parathyroid hormone.
Histologically, cells of the DCT can be differentiated from cells of the proximal convoluted tubule by looking for these features:
DCT cells do not have an apical brush border
DCT cells are less eosinophilic than proximal cells
DCT cells have less cytoplasm
DCT cells are more likely to have visible nuclei
Information primarily gathered from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_convoluted_tubule

Proximal Convoluted Tubule
The proximal convoluted tubule is the longest (14mm) and widest (60µm) part of the nephron. It is lined with epithelial cells containing microvilli and numerous mitochondria. The most distinctive characteristic of the proximal tubule is its brush border. In the PCT, over 80% of the filtrate is reabsorbed into the tissue fluid and returned to the blood. This ensures that all necessary materials that were filtered out of the blood, such as glucose and amino acids, are now returned.

Thin (descending) Loop of Henle
The descending limb of the Loop of Henle has low permeability to ions and urea, while being highly permeable to water. The ascending limb of the LOH is impermeable to water. The net effect is for sodium chloride to leave the ascending limb and to enter the descending limb, having first passed through the renal medullary interstitium. Water is readily reabsorbed from the descending limb by osmosis, increasing the concentration of the urine. Osmolality can reach up to 1200 mOsmol/kg by the end of the descending limb.

Vasa Recta Capillary
The Vasa recta, or straight vessels, are bundles of thin vessels which carry blood into and out of the medulla. The Vasa recta eventually return blood to arcuate veins.

Thick (ascending) Loop of Henle
The ascending limb of the LOH is impermeable to water. As the fluid passes through the ascending limb, it becomes increasingly dilute as the sodium chloride is removed. Thus, the fluid entering the distal convoluted tubule is hypotonic (150 mmol/l).
Sodium, potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions are reabsorbed by active transport. K+ is passively transported along its concentration gradient through a K+ channel in the basolateral aspect of the cells, back into the lumen of the ascending limb. This K+ "leak" generates a positive electrochemical potential difference in the lumen. The electrical gradient causes more reabsorption of Na+, as well as other cations such as magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium Ca2+.
Information primarily gathered from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_of_Henle

Collecting Ducts
There are several components of the collecting duct system, which includes the connecting tubules and cortical and medullary collecting ducts. With respect to the renal corpuscle, the connecting tubule is the most proximal part of the collecting duct system. It is adjacent to the distal convoluted tubule, which is the most distal segment of the renal tubule. Connecting tubules from several adjacent nephrons merge to form cortical collecting tubules, and these may join to form cortical collecting ducts. Connecting tubules of some juxtamedullary nephrons may arch upward, forming an arcade.
The cortical collecting ducts receive filtrate from multiple connecting tubules and descend into the renal medulla to form medullary collecting ducts. Medullary collecting ducts are divided into outer and inner segments, the latter reaching deeply into the medulla. The terminal portions of these ducts are the papillary ducts, which end at the renal papilla and empty into a minor calyx.
Each component of the collecting duct system contains two cell types: intercalated cells and a segment-specific cell type. For the connecting tubules, this specific cell type is the connecting tubule cell; for the collecting ducts, it is the principal cell. The inner medullary collecting ducts contain an additional cell type, the inner medullary collecting duct cell.
The principal cell mediates the collecting duct's influence on sodium and potassium balance via sodium and potassium channels located on the cell's apical membrane. Intercalated cells come α and β varieties and participate in acid-base homeostasis. The α-intercalated cells secrete acid via an apical H+-ATPase and H+/K+ exchanger in the form of hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbonate via a basolateral Cl-/HCO3- exchanger. Damage to the α-intercalated cell's ability to secrete acid can result in distal renal tubular acidosis.
Similarly, β-intercalated cells secrete bicarbonate via an apical Cl-/HCO3- and reabsorb acid via a basal H+-ATPase. Because of their contribution to acid-base homeostasis, the intercalated cells play important roles in the kidney's response to acidosis and alkalosis.
The collecting duct system plays a role in electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and excretion, which are regulated by the hormones aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone. The collecting duct system is the last component of the kidney to influence the body's electrolyte and fluid balance. It accounts for 4-5% of the kidney's reabsorption of sodium and 5% of reabsorption of water. During extreme dehydration, over 24% of the filtered water may be reabsorbed in the collecting duct system.
The collecting duct system regulates electrolytes, including chloride, potassium, hydrogen ions, and bicarbonate. The variable reabsorption of water and, depending on fluid balances and hormonal influences, the reabsorption or secretion of sodium, potassium, hydrogen, and bicarbonate ion continues here.
The wide variation in water reabsorption levels of the collecting duct system reveals its dependence on hormonal activation. The collecting ducts, particularly the outer medullary and cortical collecting ducts, are largely impermeable to water without the presence of ADH, or vasopressin. In the absence of ADH, excess water in the renal filtrate is allowed to enter the urine, promoting diuresis. When ADH is present, aquaporins allow for the reabsorption of water, inhibiting diuresis.
Information (and copying of unusual alpha-numeric characters) found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collecting_duct_system

Kidney Failure and Dialysis

If a person's kidneys fail to function properly, the only way to prevent toxic buildup in the body is to undergo dialysis.
There are two types of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The most commonly recognized form of dialysis is hemodialysis. About 90 percent of dialysis patients receive hemodialysis. In this procedure, the blood is circulated from the body into a machine before being returned to the patient.
In order for hemodialysis to be performed, a doctor must make an access into the patient's blood vessels. This is done by minor surgery in the leg, arm or sometimes neck. The best access for most patients is called a fistula, wherein minor surgery is performed to join an artery to a vein under the skin to make a larger vessel.
If no vessels are suitable for a fistula, the doctor uses a soft plastic tube called a vascular graft to join the artery and vein.
Once the access is made and healed, two needles are inserted in the fistula or graft, one on the artery side and one on the vein side.
For temporary dialysis in the hospital, a patient might require a catheter implanted into a large vein in the neck.
A dialysis machine is composed of two parts: one side for blood and one for a fluid called dialysate. A thin, semipermeable membrane separates the two sides. Particles of waste from the blood pass through microscopic holes in the membrane and are washed away in the dialysate. Blood cells are too large to go through the membrane and are returned to the body.
The benefits of hemodialysis are that the patient requires no special training, and he or she is monitored regularly by someone trained in providing dialysis.
The other type of treatment, Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis (CAPD) uses the patient's own peritoneal membrane as a filter. This membrane, like the membrane in the dialysis machine, is semipermeable. Waste particles can pass through it, but larger blood cells cannot.
The patient has a peritoneal catheter surgically implanted into the belly. He or she slowly empties about two quarts of dialysate fluid through the catheter into the abdomen. As the patient's blood is exposed to the dialysate through the peritoneal membrane, impurities are drawn through the membrane walls into the dialysate. The patient drains out the dialysate after three or four hours and pours in fresh fluid. The draining takes about half an hour and must be repeated about five times a day.
The main benefit of CAPD is freedom. The patient doesn't have to be at a dialysis clinic for several hours a day, three times a week. The dialysate can be exchanged in any well-lit, clean place, and the process is not painful. The drawback to this treatment is that there is a risk of infection of the peritoneal lining, and the process may not work well on very large people.
Pediatric patients often do a similar type of dialysis called Continuous Cycling Peritoneal Dialysis (CCPD). Their treatments can be done at night while they sleep. A machine warms and meters dialysate in and out of their abdomens for 10 hours continuously. In this way, they are free from treatments during the day.
This information was gathered from http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1998/198_dial.html

The toll on a person who must endure dialysis can be quite high both physically and mentally. Persons with kidney failure often feel ill and tired in spite of dialysis. Hemodialysis is time-consuming and leaves the patient with little freedom to enjoy other activities. Often the patient with kidney failure doesn't feel well enough to consider other activities, even if hemodialysis weren't so time consuming. In spite of the blood-cleaning function of dialysis, the body's toxins still have an effect. People with kidney failure are often flushed or sweating.
I knew a young man in high school whose father had been undergoing dialysis for a number of years. He was in constant pain and eventually committed suicide to escape from the pain and hopelessness of his situation.
A gentleman who was a patient in a long-term care facility where I worked had himself admitted so that we could perform hospice care on him. He had voluntarily ceased his dialysis treatments and knew that he was going to die. His blood pressure was often so high that it was impossible to measure. His appetite was very poor and his skin was usually clammy. He was constantly nauseated and sometimes in terrible pain. He died within a week. I have always remembered him for his gentle personality and friendly attitude in the face of his illness and impending death.
A man in another long-term care facility where I worked had been dialysis for many years. His skin eventually began breaking down and in spite of our best efforts, he developed severe bed sores because he was constantly oozing B.M. and the acidic quality of the stool ate away at his skin. He had been a doctor and my mother, who was a nurse at the facility, conferred with him. Between his medical knowledge and their frank discussion, he made the decision to discontinue his dialysis treatments. After two days he slipped into a coma and was dead within five days.
There are several causes for kidney failure. This website sums them up with simple, easily understandable terminology.
http://www.kidneypatientguide.org.uk/site/fail.php